Iron oxide-driven antibiotic reduction: From interfacial reactions to multi-system synergistic mechanisms

The residues of antibiotics in the environment pose a threat to ecosystems and human health. Iron oxides play a pivotal role in mediating the multi-pathway degradation of antibiotics due to their adsorption capacity, redox activity, and electron transfer capability. This review systematically summarizes the research progress on iron oxides promoting antibiotic degradation in soil and water media. We highlight three core mechanisms: adsorptive enrichment (via surface complexation or electrostatic interactions), catalytic oxidation (by activating hydrogen peroxide or persulfate to generate reactive radicals or form high-valent iron species), and reductive degradation (through dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria to reduce nitro or halogen groups in antibiotics). Additionally, this review explores how iron oxides synergistically interact with the microbial system (acting as electron acceptors to promote microbial metabolism and reduce biotoxicity), plant system (forming iron plaque barriers on root surfaces and enhancing plant enzyme activity), photocatalytic system (acting as photosensitizers or heterojunction components to improve charge separation), and microbial electrochemical systems (triggering in-situ Fenton reactions), thereby forming efficient degradation strategies in practice. Understanding these complex processes mediated by iron oxides is crucial for developing more effective environmental technologies for remediation of antibiotic contamination. • Antibiotics can be removed by microorganisms, plants, photocatalysis and microbial electrochemical systems. • •Adsorption, oxidation and reduction degradation of antibiotics by iron oxides were summarized. • •Synergistic coupling of iron oxides with above technologies were reviewed. • •Adsorption–catalysis–biological transformation reaction chain was put forward. • •Iron oxides dually benefit of pollutant removal and restoration of ecological functions.