Climate migration and adaptation in Pakistan mapping regional disparities inequalities and policy pathways for resilience

Climate change is affecting record-breaking internal migration in Pakistan, reshaping environmental, economic, and social systems. This article analyzes climate-induced migration from 2010 to 2025 through systematic secondary-data synthesis, NVivo-supported thematic coding, and comparative provincial analysis of Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Punjab. Drawing on Push–Pull Theory, Translocality, and Adaptation frameworks, it asks how environmental stressors, socioeconomic inequalities, and governance structures influence migration dynamics. There is evidence that migration is shifting from temporary displacement to semi-permanent adaptation, but gains remain unequal. Socially and economically capital-endowed households utilize translocal networks to ensure resilience, while excluded individuals are subject to limited adaptation or immobility under threat. Diverse provincial trajectories, flood- and salinity-driven displacement in Sindh, drought-induced exodus in Balochistan, and glacial peril in KP, underscore governance fragmentation and weak policy integration. The study reimagines migration as an appropriate adaptation pathway and recommends the establishment of migration-sensitive adaptation funds, mobility integration in city planning, and enhanced coordination among NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority), PDMAs (Provincial Disaster Management Authorities), and local governments. It provides practical recommendations to Pakistan’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC 3.0) and South Asia climate resilience agendas.