Medical Microplastics: Research Progress on Exposure Pathways, Toxic Effects, and Detection Methods

The escalating use of plastic medical products has made medical microplastics (MMPs) contamination an important health concern for specific populations (e.g., patients undergoing medical interventions) and has rendered it a growing focus in global environmental health research. This review systematically summarizes the release characteristics of MMPs throughout their life cycle from device manufacturing and clinical use to waste disposal, and elucidates human exposure pathways. For the general population, environmental exposure and dietary intake are the dominant exposure sources. In patients, however, invasive procedures and intravenous infusions serve as direct, high-concentration routes, enabling MMPs to enter the bloodstream directly. The article focuses on analyzing the molecular mechanisms underlying multisystem pathological effects induced by MMPs, including cardiovascular injury, respiratory dysfunction, digestive disorders, and reproductive toxicity, which involve key pathways such as oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, apoptosis, and dysregulated autophagy. Regarding existing detection technologies, we compare and evaluate the advantages and limitations of microscopic observation, spectral analysis, and chromatography–mass spectrometry in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and applicability, proposing that integrated technical strategies can significantly improve detection reliability. Finally, the review discusses current challenges and future research directions, including the establishment of standardized risk assessment frameworks, the development of highly sensitive in situ detection technologies, and the exploration of targeted intervention strategies. This work provides a theoretical basis for understanding the health risks of MMPs and offers valuable insights for formulating safety management policies for medical plastics.