Unequal participation: How low socioeconomic status hinders political engagement

Political participation is a key mechanism through which individuals express their preferences in democratic systems. Thus, unequal participation may allow some groups to exert disproportionate influence on political outcomes. This research examines the existence of socioeconomic status (SES) differences in political engagement and sheds light on the psychological mechanisms driving these disparities across seven studies. Using nationwide surveys from 47 countries ( N = 70,417), Study 1 reveals an SES gap in political engagement across various domains (e.g., voting, boycotting) and shows that this gap is partly due to lower political efficacy—one's perceived ability to influence political affairs—among low-SES individuals. Study 2 ( N = 545) replicates these findings in a representative sample of the Brazilian population, using a behavioral proxy for political participation. Studies 3a-c ( N 3a = 301; N 3b = 302; N 3c = 301) experimentally manipulate SES among U.S. participants and show that effectively inducing lower-SES perceptions reduces political engagement. Studies 4a-b ( N 4a = 301; N 4b = 328) test an intervention in a lab-in-the-field experiment with extremely deprived residents of Rio de Janeiro's slums, showing that enhancing political efficacy increases participation among low-SES individuals both in the run-up to and in the aftermath of a national election. Together, these studies demonstrate that while SES is consistently linked to political participation, addressing psychological barriers and fostering political efficacy can help close the participation gap. In addition, this work contributes to broader methodological debates surrounding the measurement and experimental manipulation of socioeconomic conditions in psychological research. • Low-SES individuals are less politically engaged than high-SES individuals. • Political efficacy explains the association between SES and political engagement. • Promoting political efficacy can boost participation among low-SES individuals.