Ecosystem services in agroecology

Agroecological systems deliver provisioning, regulation and maintenance and cultural ecosystem services that sustain productivity, resilience, and long-term adaptation. Agroecological management practices to enhance ecosystem services can include (i) Diversification strategies: intercropping, agroforestry strips, crop rotations and cover crops to enhance biomass production, strengthen soil fertility, improve pest regulation and reduce production risks, (ii) Habitat management: hedgerows, flower strips, refuge patches and non-cropped areas to support pollination and natural pest control through increased landscape complexity, (iii) Soil health practices: reduced or no tillage, organic amendments, green manures, perennial species and permanent soil cover to promote erosion control, nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration, (iv) Integrated pest management (IPM): monitoring, biological and cultural control, with targeted chemical use only above environmental thresholds to reinforce ecological regulation processes, (v) Water and erosion control: riparian vegetation buffers, contour farming, mulching and infiltration-enhancing practices to improve water quality and soil retention and (vi) Seed and genetic resource stewardship: on-farm conservation and participatory breeding to sustain genetic resources and strengthen adaptive capacity.