Gut microbiome modulation in allergic rhinitis: from current evidence to emerging therapies

axis signalling, while distinguishing clinically evaluated strategies from experimental or preclinical and assessing their translational readiness. Collectively, available evidence suggests that microbiome-targeted therapies represent a promising conceptual avenue for understanding and potentially modulating AR. However, their clinical application remains constrained by heterogeneous study designs, reliance on extrapolated data from preclinical studies, limited standardized outcome measures, insufficient long-term safety data, and evolving regulatory frameworks. Addressing these challenges through well-designed clinical trials and improved mechanistic characterization will be essential to clarify the role of microbiome-based interventions as adjunctive strategies in AR management.