Diflubenzuron Caused Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Ca ²⁺ Homeostasis Disruption, and Intrinsic Apoptosis in Trophoblastic Cells

phase was induced, and the migration ability of trophoblastic cells was significantly reduced by diflubenzuron treatment. These alterations suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction with the downregulation of hormone receptors (progesterone receptor and estrogen receptor 1 and 2) may impair trophoblastic function. This study confirmed that diflubenzuron has a cytotoxic effect on trophoblastic cells and may impair trophoblastic functions related to implantation. Collectively, these results highlight the potential of diflubenzuron as a reproductive toxicant in disrupting early pregnancy processes. Further studies are needed to clarify exposure relevance and to evaluate potential risks to human reproductive health.