Monitoring Inputs, Control Architectures, and Failure Modes in Closed-Loop Vasopressor Systems: A Comprehensive Review

Closed-loop vasopressor systems integrate real-time blood pressure monitoring with automated decision logic to support hemodynamic stability in perioperative and critical care environments. These technologies sit at the intersection of biomedical sensing, signal processing, and clinician-supervised automation: the quality, latency, and failure behavior of the monitoring input can directly shape controller performance, safety margins, and clinical usability. In this comprehensive review, we synthesize the major closed-loop vasopressor architectures reported in the literature, examine how sensor modality and signal integrity influence algorithm behavior, and summarize recurrent reliability vulnerabilities spanning sensors, control logic, and device integration. We organize the field through an end-to-end information pipeline-monitoring input, signal conditioning and quality assessment, decision and control strategy, actuation via infusion technology, and supervisory safety layers-highlighting common performance metrics used to benchmark control quality. We then discuss clinical validation patterns across settings, emphasizing practical considerations for deployment and the evidence gaps that remain most relevant to high-risk populations. Finally, we propose reporting and validation priorities for future studies, with a focus on sensor robustness, transparency of algorithm design, integration safeguards, and standardized documentation of failures and overrides.