3D printing Lift-Off? The use of additive manufacturing in spacecraft components

Additive Manufacturing (AM) has emerged as a transformative production technology which enables complex geometries, part consolidation, and lightweight structures. Across multiple industries, AM is recognized as a strategic enabler of digital manufacturing and design optimization. In the space sector, where mass reduction, structural performance, and functional integration are critical, AM presents significant potential. Yet its adoption remains limited. This study analyses the factors influencing AM adoption by European space organizations using an integrated Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework and Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory. A qualitative multi-case design was adopted, combining 24 interviews with industry suppliers, research organizations, and the European Space Agency, complemented by documentary analysis. Findings indicate that adoption is primarily driven by perceived relative advantage (design freedom and associated performance gains), organisational innovativeness and agency support mechanisms, while limited organisational readiness (skills and experience), agency-driven certification pressure and low visibility of flight-qualified demonstrators remain major barriers. Adoption cost plays a dual role: potential savings through mass reduction and part consolidation are offset by substantial qualification, testing and compliance efforts. Overall, the results highlight persistent misalignments between technological potential, organisational capabilities and institutional requirements that constrain the transition from prototypes to flight-qualified parts, pointing to the central role of institutional actors in qualification/standardisation and the need for firms to strengthen design-for-AM capabilities. • 3D printing demands a new mindset: redesign and optimise components for AM. • Design flexibility and mass reduction are key AM adoption drivers in space. • High adoption costs and qualification need limit AM use beyond prototypes. • Lack of process repeatability and standards undermines trust in AM parts. • An adapted TOE–DOI framework explains AM adoption in European space firms.