Heterogeneity of bacterial host-pathogen interactions across biological scales

, we discuss how stochastic gene expression, intrinsic and extrinsic factors, as well as tissue context shape the variable activation of the immune responses and ultimately determine the outcomes of host-pathogen interactions. We argue that the outcome of single-cell interactions is shaped by a combination of host states, bacterial-intrinsic features, and the local microenvironment. We further discuss how computational and mathematical modeling can integrate these heterogeneous single-cell events across spatial scales, linking intracellular variability with tissue-level pathogenesis and progression of infection. Gaining insight into and controlling these layers of variability holds promise for the development of more precise, context-dependent antimicrobial strategies.