Advances in low-cost electrochemical sensors for healthcare monitoring and diagnostics

The rising demand for accessible and cost-effective healthcare diagnostics has driven significant advancements in the development of affordable electrochemical sensors. These sensors enable the rapid, sensitive, and noninvasive detection of various biomarkers, making them essential tools for point-of-care testing (POCT) and disease monitoring in resource-limited settings. This review explores recent innovations in the design, materials, and fabrication techniques of low-cost electrochemical sensors, focusing on their applications in healthcare diagnostics. Key cost-reduction strategies include the use of abundant and inexpensive materials such as carbon-based compounds, conductive polymers, and plant-derived bioactive molecules. Furthermore, scalable manufacturing processes, such as screen and 3D printing, enable the production of disposable and portable sensors. This paper also highlights the integration of electrochemical sensors with digital platforms for real-time monitoring and their application in the diagnosis of chronic conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and infectious diseases. Challenges related to sensor stability, specificity, and large-scale commercialisation are discussed, along with emerging solutions and future research directions in this field. Ultimately, this review emphasises the potential of affordable electrochemical sensors to revolutionise healthcare diagnostics by improving accessibility, reducing costs, and enhancing patient outcomes.