Remaking Rizal: Propaganda, Agency, and National Identity in the Wartime Philippines

How did Japanese occupiers and Filipino elites transform José Rizal into a tool for their wartime agendas? Analyzing 136 articles from the Tribune (1942–1945), I identify two phases of appropriation. “Orientalization” emphasized Rizal’s alleged Japanese connections to legitimize the occupation, while “nationalization” saw Filipino leaders invoke his legacy to foster unity under the Japanese-sponsored Second Republic. Through this analysis, I demonstrate how propaganda, constrained agency, and resistance shaped national identity, revealing how national icons derive power not from fixed meaning but from their malleability across political projects.