Boundary conditions and cognitive mechanisms of the time–space framing effect: dual-modality evidence based on the dimension comparison model

BACKGROUND: The time-space framing effect describes systematic preference changes when identical travel decisions are described using temporal versus spatial distance representations. Understanding when and why this effect occurs holds theoretical and practical importance for decision science and behavioral interventions in travel contexts. METHODS: tests, mediation analyses, mixed-effects regressions, and Bayes factor analyses. RESULTS: The time-space framing effect exhibited a twofold pattern determined by how frames altered the perceived intradimensional differences: frames that magnified perceived distance differences shifted preferences toward the distance-superior option, whereas frames that reduced these differences shifted preferences toward the outcome-superior option. The effect was absent when perceived intradimensional differences remained unchanged across frames. Mediation analyses indicated that changes in perceived intradimensional differences mediated the relationship between frame manipulation and choice preference, and that the presence or absence of such changes constituted a key boundary condition for the occurrence of framing effects. Eye-tracking showed that 95% of participants employed dimension-based strategies, with processing differences predicting both choices and choice reversals across frames. CONCLUSIONS: Time-space framing effects arise from systematic shifts in dimensional comparison processes rather than superficial presentation differences. This mechanistic understanding enables prediction of framing effect direction, providing theoretically grounded guidance for precision nudging in travel contexts.