Neogene evolution of large rivers surrounding the Tibetan plateau: timing, typology, and tectonic-climate coupling

Intensified Neogene uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, acting through tectonic-climatic coupling, fundamentally reconfigured large-river systems across East and South Asia. Whereas previous studies have focused on individual catchments, this work provides the first integrated analysis of all large rivers surrounding the plateau. Multidisciplinary evidence reveals a progressive south-to-north evolutionary sequence, beginning with the establishment of the Ganges and Indus river systems (27–23 Ma), followed by integration of southeastern rivers such as the Yangtze, Mekong, and Salween (26–15 Ma), and culminating in the full basin connectivity of the Yellow River during the Early Pleistocene (∼2.6 Ma). Western endorheic systems (e.g., Tarim, Amu Darya) attained stable configurations later (15–2 Ma). Tectonics governed the resulting river typology by producing distinct genetic classes. These include intra-orogenic confined rivers such as the upper Yangtze, Mekong and Salween, transverse cross-cutting rivers including the Yarlung Zangbo and Indus, longitudinal trunk rivers exemplified by the Ganges and the lower Indus, and composite orogen-craton types. The composite types are further divided into unstable craton variants, including the Yellow River, and stable craton variants, such as the Yangtze, Amu Darya, and Tarim. Climate critically modulated this tectonic framework, with monsoon intensification enhancing incision and throughgoing connectivity in exorheic systems (e.g., upper Yangtze, Mekong, Salween), while continental aridification restricted endorheic rivers to internal drainage (e.g., Amu Darya, Tarim). This unifying framework linking tectonic, climatic, and hydrological processes not only advances mechanistic insight into Asian landscape evolution but also provides a reference for understanding tectonic-climate interactions in other orogenic plateau settings.