Training-induced modulation of motor task performance and psychophysiological domains through augmented sensory feedback in virtual reality

Background Augmented sensory feedback (ASF) in virtual reality (VR) can enhance motor performance, yet it is not standardly employed with rehabilitation protocols and its effects on physiological and perceptual states remain underexplored. Aim This study examined how different ASF modalities—visual, haptic, and combined visual + haptic—modulate motor performance, psychophysiological responses, and user perceptions during an upper-limb VR training task. Methods Twenty neurotypical adults controlled a virtual robotic arm via semi-isometric muscle contractions, while receiving one of four ASF training conditions: no feedback (NF), visual feedback (VF), haptic feedback (HF), or combined (multimodal) visual + haptic feedback (VHF). Improved performance (minimizing motion pathlengths and task completion time), changes in physiological signals (EEG band power, EMG amplitude, electrodermal activity, heart rate), and perceptual ratings (agency, motivation, utility) were assessed before and after each training condition. Results VF produced greater efficiency in motor output with improved performance (primary metrics of study) in conjunction with reduced EMG, along with increased electrodermal activity suggestive of higher arousal. VHF elicited significant post-training increases in EEG alpha and beta power. Motivation and utility ratings were significantly higher for VF and VHF compared to HF and NF, while agency ratings remained stable. Across all conditions, improved performance correlated with increased alpha power, reduced EMG and heart rate, and higher motivation and utility. Conclusion These findings indicate that ASF modality differentially shapes motor, physiological, and perceptual responses. Future work should establish whether these responses generalize to clinical groups, such as those with neuromotor impairment. Ultimately, adaptive VR systems leveraging psychophysiological responses to optimize feedback in real time—balancing exertion, cognitive load, and engagement during rehabilitative training—may be key to accelerating gains in motor function.