Understanding Bystander’s Response and Intentions in Non-Consensual Sexting: Insights from the Theory of Normative Social Behavior

Non-consensual sexting entails the dissemination of erotic-sexual content without the consent of the original sender. Previous research has mainly focused on understanding the behavior of victims and aggressors. However, bystanders have been found to exert a key role in the psychosocial dynamics of this type of cyberviolence. Thus, it is essential to enhance our understanding of bystander response patterns by examining theoretical frameworks conducive to their explanation. This study contributes to this endeavor by assessing the applicability of the theory of normative social behavior (TNSB) in understanding bystanders' responses and intentions within the context of non-consensual sexting. Data were collected from 2539 students (49.2% girls, 49.1% boys, 1.7% others) aged 11-18 years. Employing structural equation modeling, the results of this study suggest that the social norms that constitute the TNSB framework provide a solid basis for understanding bystanders' responses and intentions to non-consensual sexting. Specifically, friends' injunctive norms, subjective norms, and descriptive norms were key predictors of bystander responses. Incorporating additional factors, such as empathy, heteronormative attitudes and beliefs, and parental supervision significantly improved model fit. Empathy was positively related to defensive responses and negatively to passivity. Heteronormative attitudes and beliefs were significant predictors across all three response types. Parental supervision was positively associated with defensive responses and negatively with passive ones. These findings offer a comprehensive framework for understanding adolescent bystander behavior in non-consensual sexting scenarios and underscore the importance of targeting both social and individual factors in prevention and intervention efforts.