The overlooked role of internalizing symptoms in adolescent executive function: Insights from self- and teacher ratings

This study examined how self- and teacher-rated executive functioning (EF), measured with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Second Edition, differed between adolescents with and without self-reported neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs; e.g., autism), across levels of internalizing symptoms, and how EF, NDDs, and internalizing symptoms related to academic achievement. Analyses included gender as a factor or were conducted separately for boys and girls. Participants were two Swedish cohorts: a younger group ( N = 393, M age = 14; 45.8% girls) and an older group ( N = 359, M age = 17; 66.6% girls). Adolescents with self-reported NDDs showed greater EF difficulties—particularly in the younger cohort—based on both self ( p ≤ .003, η p 2 = 0.03–0.16) and teacher ratings ( p ≤ .001, R 2 sp = 0.06–0.30). Self-reported EF difficulties were strongly associated with internalizing symptoms ( p ≤ .006, η p 2 = 0.04–0.25), whereas teacher ratings showed minimal associations. Teacher-rated EF was the strongest predictor of academic achievement ( β ≈ −0.50, p < .001 for both genders) and remained robust after controlling for NDD status and internalizing symptoms. Self-rated EF showed weaker associations, but these strengthened when internalizing symptoms were controlled. Among girls, this revealed a suppression effect, in which the EF–achievement relationship increased ( β = −0.23 to −0.43, both p < .001), and internalizing symptoms also significantly predicted achievement, suggesting that emotional factors may partly mask EF-related academic challenges. These findings underscore the importance of multi-informant assessment and the consideration of emotional factors in educational contexts.