Reframing human–elephant conflict in India through context-dependent coexistence strategies

Human–Elephant Conflict (HEC) has escalated into one of India's most serious conservation and socio-economic challenges, with high costs for both people and elephants. We examined national-level trends in HEC from 2009 to 2024 and evaluated the effectiveness of current policies in mitigating it. Over the past 16 years, a total of 7,868 human fatalities were recorded from elephant encounters, averaging nearly 500 deaths annually. Notably, four states, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Assam, accounted for almost 70% of these incidents, underscoring their status as critical conflict hotspots. During the same period, 1,653 elephants died from anthropogenic causes, with electrocution, train collisions, poaching, and poisoning emerging as the most persistent threats. Together, these figures highlight the scale and urgency of addressing HEC in India, which supports over 60% of the global wild Asian elephant population. Our study also evaluated the effectiveness of India’s current mitigation measures by combining mortality data analysis with perception surveys of 428 stakeholders, including Forest Department managers, researchers, and NGOs across 33 Elephant Reserves and elephant range states. Findings revealed that solar-powered fences and mobile-based early warning systems were widely regarded as effective, particularly in fragmented landscapes. In contrast, structural barriers such as trenches and concrete walls were perceived as costly, difficult to maintain, and less effective in the long term. Compensation schemes, although critical, were undermined by delays, inadequate rates, and procedural hurdles that erode community trust. Rapid Response Teams were valued for their role in conflict management but remain constrained by insufficient training, workforce, and resources. Overall, India's HEC policy framework remains fragmented, with generalized strategies unable to capture the ecological heterogeneity and socio-political diversity of elephant landscapes. Addressing these challenges requires decentralization, regionally tailored interventions, streamlined compensation systems, and stronger community participation. Embedding mitigation into broader land-use planning, ecological restoration, and corridor connectivity is equally critical. Implementing adaptive, participatory, and technology-driven strategies can help India minimize human and elephant mortality while enabling long-term coexistence.