How non-state actors contribute—and are constrained—in transboundary water cooperation: global infrastructure fund Japan case in the Eastern Himalayas, 1990–2005

In conflict-laden international river basins, collaborative governance has often relied on third-party involvement in conflict resolution. In recent years, increasing attention has been paid to the role of non-state actors—such as NGOs, research institutions, and private-sector actors—that differ in character from traditional international organizations. It has also been argued that such non-state actors may function as Track 1.5 diplomacy, bridging formal multilateral negotiations among state actors by facilitating dialogue and trust-building. However, empirical cases in which non-state actors have effectively played such roles remain limited. Against this backdrop, Global Infrastructure Fund Research Foundation Japan (GIF) and its support for water resource development in the eastern Himalayan region during the 1990s constitute a notable example. This study represents the first systematic attempt to document and analyze the evolution of GIF’s activities in this context. GIF engaged high-level stakeholders from India, Nepal, and Bangladesh by organizing international conferences and workshops aimed at promoting dialogue. It also facilitated the prioritization of transboundary river development projects, which had previously been pursued separately by each country. Nevertheless, amid political instability in the region—where governmental counterparts and project priorities shifted frequently—GIF faced organizational constraints inherent to non-state actors, limiting its ability to respond effectively to these changes. Furthermore, insufficient funding and a lack of engagement with local communities ultimately prevented the projects from being realized. Drawing on the GIF case, this study examines the conditions necessary for non-state actors to elicit sustained commitment from state actors in conflict-prone transboundary river basins.