Lysine Oxidase: An Enzyme to Control Biofilm, Survey, and Analysis

Biofilms consist of complex three-dimensional structures produced by fungi and bacteria at interfaces and are considered a severe hazard to human health. The biofilm formed on the surface of medical instruments leads to a major threat of dispersing microorganisms within the host and causing infection through the release of both single and clustered cells. The removal of biofilms is very challenging because of their resistance to antimicrobial therapies and high tolerance toward conventional antimicrobial agents. Therefore, it is necessary to treat biofilms more effectively and also important to understand the mechanism for biofilm formation. Addressing this key issue, this review begins with an outline of the process of biofilm formation and the associated therapeutic strategies, emphasizing the role of lysine oxidase in developing innovative antibiofilm materials for inhibiting and removing biofilms. Amino acid oxidases such as lysine oxidase and escapin are highlighted for their ability to produce hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), which exhibits antimicrobial properties against both planktonic bacteria and biofilm. It was demonstrated that the combined use of escapin intermediate products (EIP) and H 2 O 2 can prevent biofilm formation and disrupt established biofilms at micromolar concentrations by using an organism, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , as an experimental model. In addition was also observed the antifungal activity of lysine and the effects of poly-L-lysine (pLK) on bacterial biofilms. In Marinomonas mediterranea , the lysine oxidase AlpP homologue (LodA) mediates bacterial growth inhibition, DNA strand breakage, lipid peroxidation, and cell death through the accumulation of reactive species such as H 2 O 2 . Lysine alone lacked fungicidal activity, but it amplified the action of amphotericin B against C.andida albicans by inhibiting biofilm and hypha formation. Furthermore, pLK showed antimicrobial properties due to its cationic charges, effective against pathogens, including P. aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus . The review also includes the potential of synthetic mimics of antimicrobial peptides over natural peptides, which provide better stability and cost-effectiveness for treating biofilms associated with both ventilator-associated pneumonia and cystic fibrosis.