Evaluating Natura 2000 network’s effectiveness in fostering more sustainable landscape dynamics: an ecoregional approach in Spain

Abstract Context Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) changes represent a major driver of global environmental transformation, posing significant threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services worldwide. Objectives We evaluated the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 Network (NN2000) considering an ecological approach based on ecoregions, over a 31-year period (1987–2018) within Castile and León region (Spain). Methods Using CORINE Land Cover data, we analyzed LULC dynamics across five ecoregions, comparing patterns within protected areas and their unprotected surrounding areas: 1) Eurosiberian-Mediterranean transition mountains; 2) Mediterranean mountains; 3) Mediterranean steppes and moorlands; 4) Mediterranean highlands; and 5) fluvial systems. Vulnerable zones to landscape transformation were identified, and dominant LULC transition trends were assessed temporally and spatially. Results The results reveal that the landscape dynamics within NN2000 were not driven solely by the presence of a protection designation compared to non-protected areas, but landscape dynamics were also strongly shaped by differences among ecoregions. Among the ecoregions, Mediterranean mountains and fluvial systems exhibited the highest alteration rates. Although NN2000 protections limited human alterations within protected areas, substantial changes also occurred in buffer zones, highlighting external pressures, mainly in Mediterranean steppes and moorlands. Dominant processes included natural forest regeneration in unprofitable areas and agricultural intensification in productive areas, particularly during 1987–2000. Conclusions We conclude that while NN2000 contributed to more sustainable landscape dynamics, the observed LULC changes underscore the need for adaptive management strategies that incorporate ecoregional perspectives to enhance the resilience and ecological functionality of protected landscapes.