Nanoparticles in the fight against antimicrobial challenges: A comprehensive review

Nanoparticles are emerging as powerful tools for addressing antimicrobial resistance (AMR), offering innovative strategies that surpass the limitations of conventional antibiotics. Their unique physicochemical properties such as high surface area, tunable size, and adaptable surface chemistry enable effective and selective interactions with microbial cells. Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, including zinc, titanium, gold, and silver, have demonstrated strong antimicrobial activity against a broad range of pathogens, including multidrug-resistant species.These nanoparticles operate through multiple mechanisms, such as membrane disruption, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, enzyme inhibition, and nucleic acid damage, which collectively reduce the likelihood of microbial resistance. Their broad applicability has led to advancements in antimicrobial coatings, wound dressings, water purification, personal protective equipment, and environmental disinfection technologies.Despite their promise, challenges remain regarding toxicity, environmental accumulation, stability, and large-scale manufacturing. Additionally, standardized safety protocols and regulatory guidelines are still evolving. Continued interdisciplinary research is essential to enhance biocompatibility, reduce ecological risks, and enable scalable production.Takentogether, nanoparticles represent a promising frontier for strengthening global antimicrobial strategies, provided that scientific, environmental, and regulatory challenges are addressed systematically.