Animations in UI microinteractions as modulators of emotion and time perception in UX

• Animation modulates emotion and time perception as complementary, not interdependent. • Effect of animation on emotion, time perception and user experience varies by type. • Interactive cartoon animation induces positive emotion and reduces time perception. • Incremental animation design enables precise comparison of animation effects. • Derived emotion-time animation profiles inform adaptive interface design. Designing animations that intentionally modulate user emotion and perceived wait time is increasingly necessary to optimise mobile UX through UI microinteractions. However, the relationship between these two dimensions remains unexplored. To address this gap, this study systematically compares three animation types: Passive Spinner Animation (PSA), Passive Cartoon Animation (PCA) and Interactive Cartoon Animation (ICA). We conducted a controlled experiment with 705 participants, each exposed to the three animations in 10-second waiting scenarios, in a remote, digitally monitored setting designed to support ecological validity and data integrity. By employing an incremental animation design approach, we ensured a precise evaluation of the impact of each individual animation. Participants’ pre- and post-exposure emotional states were assessed using the Boredom–Enthusiasm and Impatience–Tranquillity scales. Time estimates were categorised as underestimations (≤7 s), accurate estimations (8–10 s) and overestimations (≥11 s). Results revealed systematic differences and nuanced valence-matching patterns in emotional induction and time perception. PCA and ICA were most effective at inducing positive emotions, while ICA generated the most favourable perceptions of waiting time. Conversely, PSA elicited neutral emotions and more frequent overestimations. These findings informed three functional animation profiles that offer empirical, theory-based guidance for time-critical UI design within the study’s first-exposure 10 s waiting scope and the sample’s cultural context. Animation can be a valuable resource for optimising UX in time-sensitive mobile interfaces, as it can modulate both emotion and time perception, two complementary dimensions that may not align consistently across animation types.