The role of participatory modelling techniques in stakeholder engagement in energy scenarios

A review of 48 studies shows that while co-construction is common in participatory modelling for energy scenarios, participation often remains consultative ‐ highlighting the need to better align methods with intended stakeholder engagement levels.This paper reviews 48 studies that used participatory modelling (PM) techniques for the development of energy scenarios, focusing on the level of participation (informing, consulting, collaborating, empowering) and the timing of participation (front-end, back-end, front-and back-end, co-construction). Findings show that co-construction is the predominant timing of participation, while consulting is the most frequent level of participation. This pattern suggests that longer stakeholder involvement does not necessarily lead to deeper forms of participation. Across studies, the level of participation appears to be shaped more by the technical and epistemic design of models than by the timing of participation or stakeholder availability. Based on these findings, we outline three practical considerations: 1. align the PM approach with the desired level of participation, 2. determine when stakeholder input will be most valuable, 3. clarify roles and support mutual learning.