Mapping material stocks in Pakistan’s built environment: Rethinking the definition of house across socio-economic contexts

Abstract Building material stocks (MS) account for over half of global raw material demand, significantly contributing to carbon emissions and land-use change. Yet, most research on material use in built environments focuses on Global North, overlooking rapidly urbanizing Global South. In this study, we present first spatially resolved estimates of building MS for three distinct socio-economic contexts in Pakistan. We develop a bottom-up framework that integrates census data with Google Open Buildings, Humanitarian OpenStreetMap, and World Settlement Footprint building heights data to classify building stocks by structural type. We derive material intensity (MI) through expert surveys, field measurements, local carpenters’ interviews, and bills of quantity. We quantify MIs of seven major construction materials across seven building archetypes. The estimated material stock is 616,328 kt for Karachi, 9,084 Kt for Hyderabad, and 46 kt for Deh 294. For pacca (permeant) buildings, in Karachi, we observe variation in MIs between high and low-income neighborhoods. To address lack of household-level socioeconomic data, we estimate MS in Karachi using a range-based approach, from 215,360 kt (low-income scenario) to 616,328 kt (high-income scenario). Our approach distinguishes rural settings, where multifunctional plots and semi-built spaces like verandas complicate standard floor area measures and house definition. By disaggregating MIs into sheltered and fenced areas, we reveal substantial variation: Semi-Pacca shows 1,759 kg/m 2 over a total area of 1,633 kg/m 2 , while Katcha shows 469 kg/m 2 over 258 kg/m 2 . Our mixed-methods approach captures urban–rural building diversity and provides a transferable framework for MS accounting in under-documented Global South contexts.