What do circular cities do? Insights from 26 case studies

Abstract Cities produce the largest share of global carbon emissions yet are well-positioned to lead the circular economy (CE) transition. Research on circular cities (CC), a relatively new field, is characterized by conceptual ambiguity, limited empirical depth, and a lack of nuanced understanding of the concept. This medium-N study expands the concept of CCs, demonstrating that urban circularity is not monolithic but a continuum of locally tailored strategies. It analyzes the circular strategies of 26 cities, complemented by 18 expert interviews. Based on target sector scope and intervention scale, it identifies four CC archetypes: niche community optimizers (NCO), implementing promotional and educational measures in a few high-impact sectors, mainly built environment and procurement; diversified transformative enablers (DTE), pursuing innovative transformative measures across a high number of sectors, notably food, built environment, and procurement; diversified collaborative loopers (DCL), incrementally upgrading multiple “traditional” sectors through cooperation with public and private actors, notably built environment, waste, food, and procurement; and niche conformers (NC), refining existing practices mainly in the built environment and food sectors. This proposed typology advances the understanding of the CC concept in the literature to at least four archetypes and provides city managers with a tool to understand their city's position and to compare approaches with similar cities, promoting focused learning and knowledge exchange.