Advances in vehicles for in situ delivery: From classical vectors to biologically inspired structures

The emerging fields of synthetic biology and gene therapy rely on delivery systems to introduce the nucleic acids and proteins into recipient cells. Hence, the development of delivery tools with high specificity, strong manufacturability, and low immunogenicity can advance these fields. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the development of delivery systems for proteins and nucleic acids. First, we outline viral vector-based delivery tools, including lentivirus, adenovirus, and adeno-associated virus-based delivery technologies, discussing their advantages and limitations. Next, we summarize the advantages and disadvantages of non-viral vector-based delivery tools, including delivery strategies based on lipid nanoparticles, polyethyleneimine, exosomes, cell-penetrating peptides, virus-like particles, gold nanoparticles, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Lastly, we examine the specific principles and functional potential of novel delivery systems, including the Arc, PNMA2, SEND, PVC, and Coacervate systems. Overall, this review provides a systematic assessment of the mechanisms of action, current application progress, and future prospects for viral vectors, non-viral vectors, and novel delivery tools. Moreover, this review will serve as a reference for technological development and theoretical research in the fields of synthetic biology and gene therapy.