Development of a multidimensional deprivation index for emerging municipalities and cities in Uganda

This study advances the measurement of urban living standards deprivation by developing a context-specific multidimensional deprivation index and estimating the extent of deprivation in Uganda’s newly gazetted municipalities and cities. The analysis draws on household listing data collected in November 2021 from 5987 households in Jinja City and Iganga Municipality. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to identify latent deprivation dimensions and to validate the measurement structure. Using a factor loading threshold of 0.50, six interrelated dimensions of urban deprivation were identified, jointly explaining 70% of the total variance: access to electricity, financial and communication access, adequate dwelling occupancy, improved sanitation facilities, clean water access, and housing structural quality. Sampling adequacy was confirmed (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin statistic = 0.75; Bartlett’s test of sphericity, p < 0.001), and the confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated excellent model fit (Tucker–Lewis Index = 0.959; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = 0.037). Overall, 97% and 93% of households were deprived in at least two and three dimensions, respectively. The multidimensional deprivation index was 17%, with 32% of the population classified as multidimensionally deprived and an average deprivation intensity of 52%. Substantial intra-urban variation was observed, with Jinja City recording a markedly higher level of deprivation than Iganga Municipality. Multidimensionally deprived households were predominantly characterized by residence in single-room dwellings, reliance on highly shared and unimproved sanitation facilities, substandard housing materials, and lack of electricity access. These findings reveal pervasive and overlapping deprivations in Uganda’s emerging urban centers and challenge assumptions of uniform urban advantage. They underscore the need for integrated, multisectoral, and data-driven urban development strategies to ensure equitable access to essential services as urbanization accelerates, particularly in rapidly growing secondary cities.