What makes a mountain?

Mountains are visually striking landforms that influence climate, ecosystems, and biodiversity through the steep gradients they create. Their dynamic environments attract diverse life forms, including humans-who depend on mountains for resources, refuge, and inspiration. Human concern with protecting and managing these landscapes has led to legal designations such as national parks, nature reserves, and, increasingly, restoration initiatives. Yet efforts to define mountains universally remain contested: global mapping suggests they cover between 12 and 30% of Earth's land surface, but mountains beneath ice sheets or oceans remain excluded. To explore how perceptions of mountains shape their definition and value, we examine three European cases: Mt. Snøhetta (Norway), the Dolomites (Italy), and Mt. Parnassos (Greece). Each illustrates how science, myth, and culture inform human-mountain relationships. We introduce the "Næss dilemma," highlighting the paradox that while empathy for mountains depends on interaction, such engagement inevitably alters what we seek to preserve.