The Milpa diet: a functional, sustainable pattern for human and planetary health

The synchronization of metabolic dysfunction and planetary degradation constitutes the defining challenge of the Anthropocene. We face a global syndemic-comprising obesity, undernutrition, and climate change-where unhealthy dietary transitions and unsustainable food systems act not merely as consequences, but as a mutually reinforcing feedback loop [1][2][3]. This triple crisis creates a synergistic burden that undermines the viability of sustainable food systems. As environmental and public health degrade, it triggers a regressive cycle where individuals are increasingly subjected to unhealthy food environments, further exacerbating the initial drivers of the syndemic. The magnitude of this crisis is evident: currently, over 2 billion adults present with overweight or obesity [4], while a staggering proportion of mortality attributable to cardiovascular diseases (30%), type 2 diabetes (23%), and chronic kidney disease (20.7%) is directly underpinned by dietary risks [1,5,6] This public health emergency is inextricably linked to an agri-food model dependent on highyield monocultures. While this industrial paradigm has maximized caloric availability, it has compromised nutritional diversity and ecosystem integrity [7,8]. The expansion of simplified agricultural systems now drives 80% of deforestation and consumes 70% of freshwater [9], generating a "hidden hunger" where caloric abundance coexists with micronutrient deficiencies [10]. Consequently, nutrition cannot be approached through a reductionist lens of isolated nutrients; it must be understood as a multidimensional phenomenon shaped by environmental, social, and economic determinants [11,12].In this context, the Milpa Diet-rooted in Mesoamerican agricultural traditions-transcends mere cultural grounding to become a robust biocultural system and a complex nutritional ecosystem. Far from being a relic of the past, the Milpa represents a sophisticated, nutrientdense, and bioactive-rich pattern that aligns with the modern principles of integrative and precision nutrition [13,14]. Historically, dietary interventions have been framed through a reactive, pathogenic lens focused strictly on risk-factor reduction and disease prevention. The Milpa bridges this theoretical gap. Based on the polyculture of maize, beans, squash, and chili, this system certainly supports metabolic health and prevents non-communicable diseases (NCDs) through synergistic biochemical mechanisms rather than isolated compounds [15][16][17]; however, its theoretical grounding goes much further.Moving beyond the concept of a mere "meal plan," the Milpa paradigm embodies a true salutogenic model-focused proactively on the origins of health and the holistic development of well-being rather than merely reacting to disease. Its structure fosters food sovereignty, biodiversity preservation, and climate adaptation through efficient resource cycling and agroecological practices [18]. This opinion article explores the relevance of the Milpa system not only as a cultural heritage but as a scalable, evidence-based blueprint for sustainable diets (Figure 1). We posit that integrating this indigenous knowledge system offers a strategic, viable opportunity to address the dual burden of chronic disease and environmental degradation, advancing the transition toward resilient, equitable, and sustainable food systems.The Milpa paradigm as a synergistic framework for human health, planetary health, and food security. > The central intersection represents the core Mesoamerican triad (maize, beans, and squash) cultivated as an agroecological polyculture. The overlapping spheres illustrate the multidimensional impacts of this biocultural system. Human health is supported by diverse, nutrient-dense foods that positively modulate the gut microbiome, metabolic markers, and genomic expression. Planetary health is promoted through biodiversity conservation, sustainable land use, and climate adaptation. Food security is achieved via resilient local agriculture, culturally relevant protein sources (including backyard livestock and edible insects), and food sovereignty. Together, these elements form a holistic, salutogenic nutritional model.The term Milpa derives from the Nahuatl words milli ("sown plot") and pan ("on top of"), designating an ancestral Mesoamerican agricultural system that originated between 4,500and 3,500-years BP [18,19]. However, functionally, it represents more than a cultivation technique; it is a dynamic biocultural complex adapted to diverse edaphoclimatic conditions. Its nutritional core consists of the "Mesoamerican Triad": maize (Zea mays L.), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), and squash (Cucurbita pepo L.), which form a symbiotic structural and nutritional base [20]. Depending on regional ecosystems, this polyculture integrates a diverse array of endemic species, functioning as an in-situ germplasm bank. These include chili peppers (Capsicum annuum L.), tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum), tomatillo (Physalis spp.), and chilacayote (Cucurbita ficifolia). The system also incorporates amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), nopal cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), and nutrient-dense wild greens known as quelites-such as chipilín (Crotalaria longirostrata), Amaranthus hybridus, Portulaca oleracea, and Dysphania ambrosioides. This biodiversity is complemented by tubers like sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and cassava (Manihot esculenta) [15,[18][19][20][21].From an agroecological perspective, the Milpa thrives as a mixed polyculture within a space of synergistic interactions, optimizing the capture of solar radiation, water, and soil nutrients. The vertical architecture of maize provides support for climbing beans, while the broad leaves of squash cover the soil, retaining moisture and suppressing competitive weeds [15,19]. This structure optimizes the "Land Equivalent Ratio" (LER), resulting in a food system rich in proteins, fiber, vitamins, and bioactive compounds, produced with high resource efficiency [17].Crucially, the nutritional architecture of the Milpa diet cannot be understood solely from its raw agricultural products; it relies fundamentally on ancestral food-processing technologies, specifically nixtamalization. This alkaline thermal treatment of maize (cooking with calcium hydroxide) breaks down the hemicellulose of the pericarp, significantly enhancing the bioavailability of niacin (vitamin B3) and calcium, while modifying the protein matrix to improve digestibility [22]. Thus, the Milpa system fuses agricultural biodiversity with culinary biotechnology to deliver a complete protein profile and a micronutrient-dense diet.Derived from this agricultural model, the Milpa Diet is proposed not merely as a set of ingredients but as a healthy, sustainable, and culturally relevant dietary pattern. Its nutritional axis relies on the synergistic consumption of maize, beans, squash, and chili [13,16]. These components create a complementary nutritional matrix characterized by a high density of micronutrients, diverse fiber types, and a complex profile of bioactive compounds:  Maize (Zea mays): Providing an energy foundation, it provides complex carbohydrates and resistant starch. Enriched by nixtamalization, it becomes a key source of bioavailable calcium. Furthermore, pigmented varieties (blue/red) function as potent reservoirs of anthocyanins-particularly cyanidin-3-glucoside-and phenolic acids (ferulic acid), which are linked to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways [17,22].  Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris): These legumes are critical for the protein architecture of the diet. They act as the biochemical complement to maize. In contrast, maize is low in lysine and tryptophan; beans are rich in these essential amino acids, providing protein quality comparable to animal sources. Additionally, they are rich in iron, zinc, folate, and non-digestible fermentable carbohydrates (prebiotics), as well as flavonoids such as quercetin and kaempferol [23,24].  Squash (Cucurbita spp.): This crop offers a dual nutritional contribution. The seeds (pepitas) provide a dense source of plant-based proteins, zinc, magnesium, and healthy lipids (mono-and polyunsaturated fatty acids), including phytosterols. Conversely, the pulp serves as a primary source of carotenoids (β-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin), vital for ocular and immune health [25,26].  Chili Peppers (Capsicum spp.): Far from being a mere condiment, chili peppers act as metabolic modulators. They are exceptionally rich in Vitamins A, C, and E. Their pungency derives from capsaicinoids, compounds with recognized thermogenic and metabolic-regulating properties, which work in tandem with their high flavonoid content [27].This core triad is dynamically complemented by eight peripheral food groups: vegetables, fruits, whole grains, oilseeds, unsaturated fats, tubers, natural sweeteners, and animal protein in moderation. The regimen prioritizes water consumption while strictly limiting ultraprocessed products [16,17]. Collectively, the Milpa Diet constitutes a predominantly plantbased yet fundamentally omnivorous framework. It is defined by a sophisticated macronutrient architecture-rich in plant proteins, complex carbohydrates, and healthy fats-and reinforced by a high fiber content and a diverse phytochemical spectrum.This combination generates a distinctive nutritional phenotype that modulates metabolic health via multiple bioactive pathways. To illustrate the specific functional contribution of this biodiversity, Table 1 provides a detailed summary of the bioactive compounds and physiological effects associated with the key Mesoamerican species constituting the Milpa Diet.-Insert table 1 here-Table 1. Mesoamerican foods included in the Milpa Diet, their bioactive compounds, and health effects.Contemporary nutritional science effectively validates the therapeutic potential of traditional dietary patterns rooted in whole, minimally processed foods. The Milpa diet aligns rigorously with this paradigm, offering a functional food matrix characterized by a low glycemic load, high fiber density, and a diverse spectrum of bioactive compounds. Unlike reductionist approaches, the therapeutic potency of this diet relies on the biochemical synergy of its components-a "natural polypharmacy" effect that targets metabolic dysregulation through multiple signaling pathways [17,23].Specific food-processing interactions and enzymatic inhibitions drive the physiological impact of the Milpa. For instance, the nixtamalization of maize not only enhances calcium bioavailability but modifies the anthocyanin profile, increasing the concentration of cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G), a flavonoid with proven insulin-sensitizing properties [29,30]. Concurrently, the consumption of common beans provides specific inhibitors of α -amylase and α-glucosidase. These bioactive peptides blunt postprandial glycemic excursions by delaying carbohydrate hydrolysis [31,32]. When combined with the lipid profile of pumpkin seeds (rich in PUFAs and phytosterols), this triad creates a metabolic buffer that optimizes glucose homeostasis and lipid metabolism.The health benefits are mechanistically attributable to a distinct phytochemical profile that exerts pleiotropic effects [23,33]. Key bioactive groups include: Phenolic Compounds: Specifically, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids. These act as potent antioxidants and modulators of inflammatory pathways (e.g., NF-κB inhibition) [23].  Phytosterols: Including β-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol. These compounds compete with cholesterol for micellar absorption in the gut, effectively improving lipid profiles [23,34].  Carotenoids: Such as zeaxanthin, lutein, and β-carotene. Beyond their role in ocular health, they function as signaling molecules in adipose tissue regulation [17].  Bioactive Peptides: Derived from plant proteins (beans and amaranth), exhibiting antihypertensive (ACE-inhibitory) and antithrombotic activities [35].  Dietary Fiber and Fatty Acids: The synergy between soluble fiber and oleic/linoleic acids supports satiety signaling and improved insulin receptor sensitivity [36,37].Accumulating evidence demonstrates that adherence to the Milpa diet-and the broader Traditional Mexican Diet (TMD)-confers protection against the spectrum of chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). Clinical and epidemiological studies have documented significant risk reductions in:1. Cardiometabolic Conditions: Including Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), dyslipidemias, Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD), and obesity [13,16,[38][39][40]. 2. Systemic Pathologies: Such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), chronic kidney disease (CKD), and specific cancers, as well as autoimmune conditions like celiac disease [5,17,41].Finally, the Milpa diet represents a frontier for Precision Nutrition. Its plant-forward composition serves as a high-quality substrate for the gut microbiota, promoting the production of Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs), such as butyrate. This mechanism not only reinforces gut barrier integrity but also modulates the gut-brain axis [42,43]. Crucially, these benefits are amplified by the synergy of functional foods inherent to the system. Beyond providing essential nutrients, the diversity of Milpa crops delivers a complex matrix of bioactive compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that play a key role in mental health [23,44]. As research advances in nutrigenomics, the Milpa stands as a scalable model to address genetic susceptibilities (e.g., MTHFR or ABCA1 variants) through these culturally relevant dietary interventions [13,45].The Western Diet (WD)-characterized by excessive caloric density, nutrient deficiency, and a reliance on ultra-processed foods (UPFs)-acts as a primary driver of metabolic inflexibility and systemic chronic inflammation [2]. The public health ramifications of this dietary transition are catastrophic, reflected in the escalating global mortality burden linked to poor nutritional quality [1,5].Current epidemiological estimates paint a stark picture of this "metabolic collision." Approximately 6.58 million deaths from cardiovascular disease (CVD) are attributable to dietary risks, specifically the excessive intake of sodium, trans fats, and processed meats [6]. Furthermore, nutritional imbalances-such as low whole-grain and fruit consumption-are directly linked to 381,000 deaths from Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) [1] and 317,000 deaths among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) [5]. Moreover, the obesity epidemic, fueled by the WD, now accounts for nearly 357,000 cancer deaths annually [46,47]. Extending beyond somatic pathology, this dietary pattern drives neuronal alterations that have opened a critical debate regarding the addictive potential of ultra-processed foods, further underscoring the emerging intersection between nutrition and mental health [48].Against this backdrop, the Milpa diet emerges not merely as a cultural alternative but as a potent physiological corrective. While clinical literature often categorizes these interventions as "Traditional Mexican Diet" (TMD) or "Genome-Based Diets," they are fundamentally rooted in the Milpa triad and its associated agrobiodiversity. To systematically validate this, existing studies provide robust evidence across various methodological designs and sample populations:Cross-sectional epidemiological evidence demonstrates that reintroducing these pre-Hispanic staples generates a favorable lipidomic profile among adult populations, significantly reducing total cholesterol, LDL-c, VLDL-c, and triglycerides-key drivers of atherogenic risk [38,45]. Furthermore, randomized crossover feeding trials in women of Mexican descent reveal that the diet exerts a regulatory effect on glucose homeostasis, reducing insulin levels and HOMA-IR [45]. Significantly, these controlled trials show it lowers serum concentrations of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), thereby dampening the systemic low-grade inflammation characteristic of the WD [49].Crucially, the Milpa diet exhibits potential as a tool for population-specific precision nutrition. Clinical intervention studies indicate that its metabolic benefits are particularly pronounced in individuals carrying risk polymorphisms common in Amerindian and Mestizo populations (e.g., MTHFR 677 CT, ABCA1 R230C, and APOE ε4). This suggests that the Milpa pattern may mitigate the deleterious of these in animal a Diet" these the of this pattern is linked to the of key metabolic including and the This in and the diet the by and proteins while optimizing the these and antioxidant mechanisms systemic conditions associated with health crisis a while of the human caloric intake from global dietary diversity has the of over edible plant species, of agricultural production is effectively by crops (e.g., maize, These are produced via not for human nutrition but for the of ultra-processed food ingredients This industrial model drives soil biodiversity and creates a critical between human consumption and environmental stark contrast, the Milpa system as a model of of conditions [20]. 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