Co-Designed, Stakeholder-Driven Governance for the WEFE Nexus under Climate Extremes: Lessons from Lake Como, Italy

The water–energy–food–ecosystems (WEFE) nexus is increasingly recognized as a promising approach to addressing ‘wicked problems’, that is, complex challenges marked by uncertainty and conflicting interests. Climate extremes are exposing vulnerabilities and trade-offs within the nexus, underscoring the need for co-designed, participatory governance approaches that move beyond sectoral silos and expert-driven decision-making. This approach emphasises social learning, knowledge co-production, and exchange as means of integrating scientific expertise, policy priorities, and local community perspectives. By fostering cross-sector collaboration, co-designed processes can generate trusted and actionable solutions that are responsive to both local and systemic challenges.This study introduces a collaborative, multi-stakeholder framework to explore the vision of the WEFE nexus, identify key internal and external drivers of change, and co-design solutions and policy scenarios that reinforce interlinkages between nexus dimensions under climate change. Lake Como, northern Italy, serves as a case study due to competing water demands and increasing impacts of extreme weather events. Between October 2023 and February 2025, we conducted a series of dialogues with 20 key stakeholders representing each nexus dimension (e.g., lake operator, regional government, energy companies, irrigation districts, environmental platforms, municipalities). These dialogues combined semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, and workshops. Content analysis and statistical methods were used to examine stakeholders’ narratives, providing insights on 1) a shared vision of the nexus dimensions, 2) assessment of two policy scenarios: hydropower maximization and risk management, 3) evaluation of proposed solutions in terms of priority, relevance, effects on nexus dimensions, facilitation instruments, and implementation barriers, and 4) governance standards in the decision-making process.The main findings show that nexus dialogues are a central vehicle for operationalising the WEFE nexus. They enabled a deeper understanding of the local context and associated needs, grounded nexus assessments in real-world conditions, and fostered social learning through stakeholders’ engagement. Stakeholders agreed that the nexus is fragile, highlighting the need to reinforce the green energy transition, innovate in food security, and better align human pressures across sectors. The two policy scenarios were analysed with respect to the benefits and impacts of each nexus dimension. Selected solutions –such as changes in hydropower licenses, adjustments in ecological flow standards, adaptations in lake management protocols, and insurance programs to address weather extremes– were evaluated based on stakeholders’ preferences. Governance analysis revealed the multifunctional roles of specific stakeholders (e.g., lake operator, irrigation districts, environmental associations), gaps in representativeness (e.g., mountain communities, municipalities), and participants’ aims to both negotiate and influence decisions. By placing stakeholder engagement at the core of co-designed policy scenarios, this work contributes actionable knowledge for policymakers and practitioners tackling WEFE nexus challenges in climate-exposed regions worldwide.