Trust and risk for technology adoption: extending UTAUT for digital crowdfarming in rural India

Purpose This study examines farmers' adoption of digital crowdfarming platforms in rural India by extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT). Crowdfarming differs from crowdfunding and virtual crowdsourcing by outsourcing physical agricultural tasks, which raises issues of trust and perceived risk. The paper explains how cognitive and relational factors shape behavioural intention and adoption in this novel digital agriculture context. Design/methodology/approach A quantitative, positivist design was employed. Survey data from 280 smallholder farmers across four Indian states were collected through Common Service Centres. The extended UTAUT model incorporated performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions trust and perceived risk. Structural equation modelling (AMOS 23) was used to test hypotheses, with bootstrapping for mediation analysis. Findings All UTAUT constructs significantly predicted behavioural intention. Trust emerged as both a direct determinant of adoption and a mediator reducing the negative effect of perceived risk. Behavioural intention strongly predicted adoption. Younger and more educated farmers showed higher adoption intention, though crowdfarming appealed across farm sizes. Research limitations/implications Use of convenience sampling and a cross-sectional design limits generalisability and observation of long-term behaviour. Future research should adopt longitudinal, comparative, and mixed-method approaches. Originality/value This is one of the first empirical studies of digital crowdfarming. It extends UTAUT with trust and risk, contributing to technology adoption theory and digital agriculture practice in developing economies.