Transcending Cellular Barriers by Leveraging Nano-Bio Interactions in Nanomaterial-Driven Disease Therapy

Nanomedicine, a fusion of science and technology, involves the design and development of nanosystems at the forefront of biomedical innovation. These systems, engineered at molecular, atomic, and macromolecular sizes, generate minuscule particles with distinctive features. Nanomedicines and nano-drug delivery systems determine their biological destiny using size, surface characteristics, and composition. The primary objective is focused intervention; however, the plasma membrane presents a barrier that restricts the entry of therapeutic substances into cells, hence diminishing their efficacy. Numerous pharmacological drugs attempt to modulate intracellular components, yet their permeability across cellular membranes frequently remains insufficient. Understanding the interactions between cells and nanomaterials is thus essential. A systematic literature search using PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases was conducted to identify recent, high-impact studies emphasizing the translational potential of nanomedicine. The search prioritized articles on nanomaterial properties, cellular uptake mechanisms, and disease- specific applications. The complex cellular uptake processes have been found to involve a refined interaction with cell membranes, incorporating mechanisms, like endocytosis and phagocytosis. However, custom nanomaterial designs are essential because cells involved in photothermal treatment could have different mechanisms for absorption. Comprehending intracellular pathways is essential to enhance the targeting of therapeutic and imaging agents. From the perspective of several physicochemical attributes, this review addresses biocompatibility and possible nanotoxicity within biological systems and their likely utility for site-specific targeting, delivering more significant therapeutic effects for disease therapy.