The Hidden Threat of Pharmaceuticals: Ketoprofen Degradation and Toxicity to Non-Target Organisms

Ketoprofen is a widely prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug whose extensive global use, combined with limited biodegradability, has led to its increasing detection as a micropollutant in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Incomplete removal during wastewater treatment results in its continuous release into surface waters and soils, creating conditions for chronic, low-dose exposure of non-target organisms. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the physicochemical characteristics of ketoprofen, its mechanism of action, environmental occurrence, degradation pathways, and ecotoxicological effects. Particular emphasis is placed on biological and photochemical transformation processes that influence ketoprofen persistence and toxicity. While the acute toxicity of ketoprofen has been relatively well documented, data on chronic toxicity remain scarce, despite growing evidence that long-term exposure may pose significant ecological risks. Studies indicate that low environmental concentrations can induce hormetic responses in animals and plants, whereas higher levels may cause cellular damage associated with oxidative stress, affecting organisms ranging from microorganisms to vertebrates and vascular plants. By integrating available data on ketoprofen degradation and toxicity, this review highlights critical knowledge gaps regarding its chronic ecotoxicity and underscores the need for systematic environmental monitoring and the development of effective degradation strategies to mitigate risks to non-target organisms.