Incretin and Glucagon Signalling in <scp>MASLD</scp> and <scp>MASH</scp> : Integrating Metabolic Pathways With Disease Progression

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) arises from dysregulated interactions between nutrient delivery, adipose tissue lipid handling and liver lipid metabolism, which collectively coalesce to drive inflammatory signalling leading to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) and fibrosis. Recent clinical success of incretin- and glucagon-based therapies in both diabetes and obesity has intensified interest into how these hormonal pathways modify liver disease progression. In this review, we integrate preclinical and clinical data to examine how glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon engage key pathogenic nodes, including the gut-liver and adipose-liver axes, hepatic lipid synthesis and oxidation, mitochondrial function and nonparenchymal inflammatory responses. GLP-1-based therapies consistently improve steatosis and steatohepatitis through reductions in nutrient flux to the liver, improved adipose tissue insulin sensitivity and weight-independent anti-inflammatory effects, despite limited direct action in hepatocytes. GIP signalling appears to modulate adipose tissue lipid handling and expandability, thereby limiting fatty acid spillover to the liver, although its role in hepatic inflammation remains incompletely defined. In contrast, glucagon receptor activation directly targets hepatocytes to enhance oxidative metabolism and reduce hepatocellular stress. Across studies, improvements in fibrosis appear secondary to sustained reductions in metabolic and inflammatory injury suggesting the addition of anti-fibrotic combination therapies may exert further benefits. Looking ahead, a key challenge will be defining how these hormonal pathways interact within distinct metabolic states and how this greater mechanistic understanding can be leveraged to rationally combine therapies and expand the proportion of patients who respond across the MASLD spectrum.