Cognitive offloading through digital tools and its relationship with critical thinking, task persistence, and learning depth

Introduction The increasing reliance on digital tools in university classrooms has raised concerns about cognitive offloading and its potential implications for students' learning processes. Drawing on social cognitive theory, this study investigates how cognitive offloading through digital tools relates to critical thinking, task persistence, and learning depth. It further examines whether cognitive self-efficacy functions as a mediating mechanism linking cognitive offloading to these learning outcomes. Methods Data were collected through in-person surveys from undergraduate students enrolled in Chinese universities. Covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) was employed to analyze the data. The study first assessed the reliability and validity of the measurement model and then tested the hypothesized mediation framework by comparing competing structural models. Results The results show that cognitive offloading is positively associated with cognitive self-efficacy. In turn, cognitive self-efficacy significantly predicts higher levels of critical thinking, task persistence, and learning depth. After accounting for cognitive self-efficacy, the direct effects of cognitive offloading on learning outcomes were reduced. Specifically, cognitive self-efficacy fully mediates the relationship between cognitive offloading and task persistence, and partially mediates the relationships between cognitive offloading and both critical thinking and learning depth. Discussion These findings extend the literature by integrating cognitive offloading with self-efficacy theory, highlighting the psychological mechanism through which digital tool use can support meaningful learning outcomes. The study suggests that when students develop stronger cognitive self-efficacy, cognitive offloading through digital tools may facilitate deeper engagement and persistence in learning tasks. Implications are discussed for aligning digital tool use with pedagogical practices that promote critical thinking and deep learning in higher education.