Exploring barriers to adoption of climate-smart agriculture among smallholder farmers in Odisha, India

Given the crucial role of agriculture for livelihoods and food security, managing climate risks and enhancing resilience is important. Although many studies exist on the adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), they focus on isolated barriers without analysing how these constraints influence adoption outcomes, and without using a systematic approach to quantify and compare interconnected barriers across different interventions. This study will advance the literature by computing a CSA adoption barrier index and assessing the role of institutional mechanisms in alleviating these barriers. Using household survey data from 321 farmers across villages in four districts in Odisha, participating in National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), this study examines barriers to its adoption. Barrier indices for socio-economic, technological, institutional, and composite factors were computed using Anderson's standardised weighted index method. Determinants of these barriers were estimated using ordered logistic regression (OLR). The findings revealed higher mean composite barrier index in NICRA villages, due to socio-economic constraints, viz. lack of finance (70-74%), small land size (34-41%), and insecure land ownership (33-40%); and technological barriers, like limited knowledge (38-39%) and skills (25-27%). However, institutional barriers were higher in non-NICRA villages (11-16%). Furthermore, the Odds Ratio (OR) reported by the OLR analysis showed that larger household size (OR = 0.94) and cooperative membership (OR = 0.69) significantly reduced barrier levels, while climate-risk perception (OR = 2.06) and fertiliser density (OR = 1.003) significantly increased them. Without adequate implementation, NICRA participation increased awareness, resulting in higher reported barriers. Findings highlight the need for strengthening institutional support, improving technology access, and addressing socio-economic vulnerabilities for effectively scaling CSA in climate-vulnerable regions.