Microplastics ( < 40 µm) in commercial bottled drinking water from India: Advanced spectroscopic characterization, source attribution and human exposure risk

• MPs found in all bottled waters from six major brands sampled in Rupnagar, India. • Over 91% of detected microplastics were smaller than 40 μ m in size. • PET, PP, PS and PE were identified as dominant polymers via Micro-Raman spectroscopy. • Children face higher exposure risks based on estimated daily microplastics intake. The pervasive presence of microplastics (MPs) in drinking water has raised global concerns regarding human health and environmental safety. This study presents a comprehensive investigation of MP contamination in bottled drinking water from six major Indian brands, employing fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Micro-Raman spectroscopy for detailed characterization. All samples showed the presence of microplastics (MPs), with concentrations ranging from 808 to 1888 particles per liter, surpassing levels reported in most international studies. A closer look at their morphological studies showed that the majority, about 56.7%, were fragments, and more than 91% of the microplastics measured were smaller than 40 micrometers. Polymeric identification revealed that polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP) are the most prevalent polymers, which correspond to commonly used packaging materials. Using optical and fluorescent microscopy, we observed transparent microplastics (54.8%) as the dominant fraction, followed by black and colored particles, suggesting that the bottle body, caps, and handling-induced degradation are the primary sources of MPs. On a body weight basis, children were at higher risk of consuming microplastic particles (479.6 MP/kg BW/year). Overall, this study provides data on small-sized microplastics in commercially packaged drinking water and offers comparative insights that support ongoing efforts to improve monitoring methods and packaging solutions.