Sublethal Clothianidin Exposure Impairs Development, Thyroid Hormones, Locomotion and Predation in Fejervarya cancrivora from Rice Paddy Ecosystems

Clothianidin (CLO) is a widely used neonicotinoid insecticide in agricultural systems and may pose risks to non-target aquatic organisms, including amphibians. Here, we evaluated acute and sublethal effects of CLO on <i>Fejervarya cancrivora</i> tadpoles, an important predator of insect pests in rice paddy ecosystems. Acute toxicity tests (96 h) yielded an LC₅₀ of 50.41 mg a.i./L (with LC₁₀, LC₂₅ and LC₃₀ values of 15.35, 31.96 and 36.07 mg a.i./L, respectively). Sublethal exposure at these concentrations significantly reduced body weight, whole-body length, and hindlimb length during metamorphosis. CLO also altered thyroid hormone regulation, with T4 showing a dose-dependent increase, while T3 was elevated relative to controls but showed comparatively limited additional sensitivity to concentration and exposure duration. Locomotor activity was impaired under sublethal CLO exposure, reflected by reduced swimming distance and speed. In addition, frogs that developed from CLO-exposed tadpoles exhibited decreased feeding efficiency on brown planthoppers (<i>Nilaparvata lugens</i>) across developmental stages 46-48. Together, these findings demonstrate that CLO can affect amphibian development, endocrine regulation, and behavior at sublethal levels, highlighting the need to incorporate sublethal endpoints into ecological risk assessment and to promote pest management strategies that reduce impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services.