From free to fee: Smallholders’ willingness to pay for agricultural extension and advisory services in northern Ghana

Access to timely and reliable agricultural extension and advisory services (AEAS) remains a critical challenge for smallholder farmers across sub-Saharan Africa. Although AEAS play a central role in improving productivity and resilience, public systems are often under-resourced and unevenly delivered, particularly in remote and low-income regions. In Ghana's Upper West Region (UWR), high farmer-to-agent ratios and logistical constraints limit service effectiveness. As governments and development partners explore cost-sharing and market-oriented extension models, understanding farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for advisory services becomes increasingly important. This study examines the determinants of smallholder farmers’ WTP for AEAS in the UWR, with particular emphasis on household food insecurity and socio-economic characteristics. Data were drawn from a cross-sectional survey of 1033 smallholder households and analyzed using nested binary logistic regression models. The results indicate that food insecurity significantly reduces the likelihood of WTP. In contrast, female-headed households, households practicing joint decision-making, and those with access to remittances or farm credit were more likely to express WTP. Extended family structures and greater participation in agricultural labor were also positively associated with WTP. Notably, poorer households demonstrated higher WTP relative to wealthier groups. The findings highlight the importance of accounting for consumption vulnerability, financial access, and household organization in the design of cost-sharing extension systems. Policies that incorporate targeted subsidies, gender-responsive programming, and community-based delivery mechanisms may enhance inclusivity and sustainability in agricultural advisory provision.