Source, distribution and environmental risk of bisphenol analogues in the marine environment: Current status and future perspectives

Bisphenol analogues (BPs) are widely used endocrine-disrupting compounds, with bisphenol A (BPA) and its alternatives increasingly detected in global marine environments. Their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and ecological risks necessitate a comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge to guide future research and management. This review comprehensively synthesizes the sources, distribution, bioaccumulation, and environmental risks of bisphenol analogues (BPs) in marine ecosystems, addressing critical knowledge gaps through a bibliometric analysis and systematic evaluation of existing literature. It reveals that BPs, including bisphenol A (BPA) and its alternatives such as BPF and BPS, are ubiquitously distributed in marine waters, sediments, and biota, primarily originating from industrial discharges, wastewater, and atmospheric deposition. Bioaccumulation and trophic magnification have been reported in multiple studies, with the strongest evidence in high-trophic-level marine mammals and fish, particularly in high-trophic-level organisms like dolphins and fish, driven by lipophilicity and dietary exposure. Toxicological mechanisms involve disruptions via classical and non-classical estrogen receptor pathways, impairing development, endocrine function, and cellular processes, with emerging alternatives often exhibiting comparable or enhanced toxicity. The findings underscore significant ecological threats, highlighting the need for integrated risk assessments and future research priorities, including high-sensitivity monitoring, long-term low-dose toxicity studies, elucidation of metabolic pathways, and refined risk models to mitigate impacts on marine biodiversity and human health.