Nanostructured electrochemical biosensors for real-time and portable health monitoring systems

Portable electrochemical biosensing platforms, encompassing wearable patches, textile-integrated sensors, and handheld diagnostic systems, have emerged as increasingly important tools for decentralized health monitoring. Among these, wearable devices represent a rapidly expanding subclass due to their capability for continuous and non-invasive physiological assessment. This advancement is driven by proactive healthcare models through integration of nanostructured materials with flexible electronics and electrochemical transduction architectures, enabling highly sensitive quantification of biomarkers in sweat, saliva, tears, interstitial fluid, and blood. Despite significant progress, challenges remain in device stability, biorecognition degradation, sensor-to-sensor variability, and clinical translation. This review aims to critically evaluate nanostructured electrochemical platforms with emphasis on interfacial mechanisms and device integration. Carbon nanostructures, metal, and metal oxide nanoparticles, MXenes, Metal oxide framework (MOF), nanocomposites, and hybrid nanomaterials have been discussed with emphasis on electron-transfer pathways, catalytic enhancement, antifouling mechanisms, and robustness under physiological conditions. Beyond material engineering, the integration of these nanostructures into wearable patches, paper-based microfluidic systems, and smartphone-enabled platforms is critically analyzed. Key translational challenges, including biofouling, matrix interference, long-term stability, regulatory considerations, and AI-assisted signal processing, are comprehensively discussed. By bridging material science, device integration, and clinical validation perspectives, this review provides a roadmap for the rational development of next-generation portable electrochemical health monitoring systems. This review presents a consolidated framework for advancing nanostructure-enabled electrochemical biosensors toward clinically deployable portable real-time health monitoring devices. • Integrative analysis of nanostructured electrochemical interfaces for portable health monitoring. • Mechanistic correlation between nanomaterial structure and electrochemical performance. • Critical evaluation of wearable, paper-based, and smartphone-integrated platforms. • Discussion of clinical translation barriers, regulatory challenges, and biosafety considerations. • Emerging role of AI-assisted signal correction and multi-modal data fusion in portable diagnostics.