Yeast-based green nanoparticle synthesis: past, present and future in nanomedicine

Green synthesis of nanoparticles offers a safer and more sustainable alternative to conventional chemical methods, particularly for biomedical applications where low toxicity and biocompatibility are essential. Yeasts, in particular have emerged as promising biological platforms for nanoparticle production due to their robustness, genetic tractability, scalability, and established safety profile.This review outlines the historical progress, current biomedical applications, and future potential of yeast-derived nanoparticles in nanomedicine. Early studies demonstrated the biosynthesis of silver, gold, and selenium nanoparticles with antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, highlighting the importance of enzymatic reduction pathways and natural biomolecular capping in improving nanoparticle stability and biocompatibility. Recent advances have enabled improved control over particle size, morphology, and reproducibility through the optimization of culture conditions and genetic engineering approaches. Yeast-synthesized nanoparticles are currently being explored for cancer treatment, imaging, diagnostics, and drug delivery.Despite significant progress, clinical translation remains limited by the need for standardized, GMP-compliant production, thorough toxicity and immunogenicity evaluation, and clear regulatory frameworks. Future developments in synthetic biology and bioprocess engineering are expected to position yeast-based nanoparticle synthesis as a viable strategy for the production of medical-grade nanomaterials.