Visual Assessment of Wind Turbine Impacts on Rural Landscapes in Poland: A Model-Based SBE Study Considering Distance from Residential Areas

Wind turbines can affect perceived landscape quality, particularly in open rural settings where their scale and distinctive form make them a strong visual dominant. This article presents model-based research on how turbine setback distance from residential buildings influences the visual perception of rural landscapes in Poland. A modified Scenic Beauty Estimation (SBE) method was applied, using standardized computer-generated visualizations instead of real-world photographs of seven rural landscape types. For each type, four variants were assessed: a reference view and three scenarios with turbines located 500, 750, and 1000 m from residential buildings. Shorter setback distances significantly reduced visual ratings (ANOVA, p < 0.001). The lowest ratings occurred at 500 m, particularly in the large-scale arable farming landscape (Z = −0.886), while the highest ratings were recorded for reference variants, especially in the mountain agricultural landscape (Z = 1.20). Landscape type was also significant, with open areas proving more sensitive to turbine presence than structurally complex landscapes. Linear trend analysis confirmed that increasing setback distance is associated with higher visual ratings (F(1, 2140) = 31.60; p < 0.001; R2 = 0.01). These findings indicate that perceptual landscape assessment supports wind turbine siting and, when combined with geographic information systems (GIS) and Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment (LVIA), enables a more comprehensive evaluation of project-related environmental effects.