Measuring territorial political representation

Territorial representation is a cornerstone of democratic systems, ensuring that each geographic area has a voice in decision-making bodies. Although this principle is explicitly enshrined in federal governments, unitary states also incorporate territorial elements via mechanisms such as single-member district electoral systems and regional lists. However, certain democratic structures-most notably many large metropolitan governments-lack formal arrangements for territorial representation. This paper investigates whether, and to what extent, territorial disparities in political representation emerge in these contexts. To address this question, we propose several novel indices that measure the degree to which each territorial unit is represented relative to its population share. Using fine-grained precinct-level, geocoded electoral data, we calculate these indices for a sample of Italy's metropolitan areas and examine spatial and temporal variations in territorial representation. We find that areas with consistently below-average representation exhibit the lowest political engagement, the fewest university graduates, and the lowest employment rates. Our results contribute to the broader debate on the determinants and implications of territorial representation for democratic fairness and governance efficiency.