Tracing the origins: Isotopic evidence from early medieval lead ingots from Great Moravian hillforts in Slovakia

• First lead isotope analyses of early medieval lead ingots and ornaments from Great Moravian sites. • Provenance data indicate links with ore deposits of Upper Silesia and the Kraków Upland in southern Poland. • Data support the exploitation of these ore districts in the late 9th–10th c. • Lead ingot masses correspond to a Carolingian weight system of 408 g to the pound. • Results demonstrate long-distance metal exchange networks within the Great Moravian economy This study presents lead isotope analyses (LIA) of early medieval lead ingots and ornaments recovered from the hillforts of Bojná I and Dolné Vestenice II in western Slovakia (late 9th to early 10th c.). The results demonstrate that the lead was not derived from recycled Roman metal, as has often been assumed, but from primary ore sources. Comparative LIA data exclude local deposits, and instead point to Upper Silesia and the Kraków Upland region (Poland) as the main supply zone. These findings provide the first direct evidence for long-distance metal exchange in the Great Moravian economy; they also highlight the role of transregional resource and trade networks in early medieval Central Europe. Moreover, they corroborate findings of previous environmental studies of Upper Silesia and Kraków Upland region, indicating that local ore deposits were already being exploited by the 10th century. At the same time, the results tentatively indicate the possible use of local Carpathian lead ore sources within the territory of present-day Slovakia – a hypothesis that requires further verification.