Street mobilisation during election campaigns in multilevel systems: a supply–demand analysis

Election campaigns are periods of heightened political competition and opportunities for change. This research note examines whether such politicisation leads to increased street mobilisation, both in terms of who organises (supply) and who participates (demand). On the supply side, a 'professionalisation' of protest is expected, with more active institutional political and civil society actors. On the demand side, participation should rise. Relying on original protest event data from Germany (2000-2023), the analysis shows that campaign periods boost protest overall. Yet responses vary by election level: all groups mobilise most during first-order national elections. Regarding second-order elections, civil society actors and citizens respond more to subnational elections, suggesting localised protest dynamics, while institutional political actors focus on EU elections. This study adds to understanding how multi-level governance shapes 'unconventional' political behaviour and highlights the alignment and divergence between citizen activism and elite strategies during election campaigns.