How test-taker level of schooling interacts with pass probability on high-stakes tests for citizenship

In most Western European countries, aspiring citizens must pass both a second language (L2) test and a knowledge of society (KoS) test, often administered in the L2. While several studies highlighted the social inequalities such tests may create, few have quantified these disparities. This study, anchored in the IMPECT project, analyses the test results of 79,794 migrants in Norway to explore the implications of these requirements, particularly for adult L2 learners with limited formal education in their first language (L1). Logistic regression analyses reveal that (1) learners with limited formal L1 education have significantly lower probabilities of passing the tests compared to those with higher education; (2) disparities are greater for KoS tests than for the oral A2 language test; (3) L2 scores strongly predict the likelihood of passing KoS tests, substantiating the assumption that KoS tests are implicit language tests; and (4) the impact of language skills on passing KoS tests varies by schooling level, with L2 scores being a stronger predictor for learners with limited education than for those with tertiary degrees. These findings highlight barriers faced by learners with limited L1 schooling in the citizenship acquisition process and underscore the need for targeted policy and support mechanisms.