The Medicinal Landscape of Chrysanthemum indicum L.: Bridging Traditional Wisdom and Modern Evidence

Chrysanthemum indicum L. (C. indicum), a perennial herb widely distributed across East Asia, has long been utilised in traditional medicine and as a functional food ingredient. Contemporary research has revealed a chemically diverse phytochemical profile, dominated by flavonoids, phenolic acids, sesquiterpene lactones, essential oils, carotenoids, and polysaccharides, which collectively underpin its broad pharmacological potential. Experimental studies demonstrate that extracts and isolated constituents of C. indicum exert pronounced antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and anticancer effects in vitro and in vivo, often through modulation of key molecular pathways such as NF-κB, NLRP3 inflammasomes, AMPK–SIRT1, and Nrf2 signalling. Emerging pharmacokinetic evidence indicates variable oral bioavailability and metabolic transformation of major bioactive compounds, highlighting formulation challenges that may influence therapeutic efficacy. Toxicological studies suggest a generally favourable safety profile at traditionally used doses, although long-term and clinical safety data remain limited. Regulatory positioning varies internationally, with applications spanning traditional herbal preparations, dietary supplements and functional foods. Despite promising preclinical findings, significant challenges persist, including chemical standardisation, bioavailability optimisation, mechanistic clarification and the paucity of well-designed clinical trials. This review critically synthesises current knowledge on the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetics, safety considerations and regulatory landscape of C. indicum, identifying key research gaps and outlining future directions to support its evidence-based development as a therapeutic and dietary agent.