Airborne wind energy systems: Technological advances and engineering challenges

As the global transition toward renewable energy accelerates, wind power has garnered increasing attention worldwide due to its environmentally friendly nature, cost-effectiveness, ease of deployment, and safety. Among various wind energy technologies, high-altitude wind power generation—termed Airborne Wind Energy System (AWES)—demonstrates distinct advantages over conventional wind power technologies in terms of construction costs, wind energy utilization efficiency, and power output stability. AWES can effectively harness high-altitude winds (ranging from 200 to 10,000 m), where wind power densities are 5 to 20 times greater than at ground level. With an annual operating time exceeding 6,500 hours, it boasts exceptionally high technical availability. These advantages position AWES as a promising solution in advancing global net-zero objectives. This paper presents a comprehensive review of state-of-the-art high-altitude wind power technologies developed worldwide, summarizing their historical evolution and current status. AWESs are systematically classified and analyzed according to their operational principles, structural configurations, power generation locations, and energy conversion mechanisms. We prioritize hardware architectures of systems that have been demonstrated and tested in real-world scenarios. Finally, incorporating the latest advances in disciplines such as aerodynamics, aviation materials, and control engineering, we summarize key technologies requiring focused research for future AWES.